許清池79
培根 1.弗蘭西斯·培根(Francis Bacon ,1561—1626)是英國哲學(xué)家和科學(xué)家。他竭力倡導(dǎo)“讀史使人明智,讀詩使人聰慧,演算使人精密,哲理使人深刻,論理學(xué)使人有修養(yǎng),邏輯修辭使人善辯(Histories make men wise, poets witty, the mathematics subtle, natural philosophy deep, moral grave, logic and rhetoric able to contend)”。他推崇科學(xué)、發(fā)展科學(xué)的進(jìn)步思想和崇尚知識的進(jìn)步口號,一直推動著社會的進(jìn)步。這位一生追求真理的思想家,被馬克思稱為“英國唯物主義和整個現(xiàn)代實(shí)驗(yàn)科學(xué)的真正始祖”。 著有《學(xué)術(shù)的進(jìn)步》(1605)和《新工具》(1620)等。培根尖銳地批判了中世紀(jì)經(jīng)院哲學(xué),認(rèn)為經(jīng)院哲學(xué)和神學(xué)嚴(yán)重地阻礙了科學(xué)的進(jìn)步,主張要全面改造人類的知識,使整個學(xué)術(shù)文化從經(jīng)院哲學(xué)中解放出來,實(shí)現(xiàn)偉大的復(fù)興。他認(rèn)為,科學(xué)必須追求自然界事物的原因和規(guī)律。要達(dá)到這個目的,就必須以感官經(jīng)驗(yàn)為依據(jù)。他提出了唯物主義經(jīng)驗(yàn)論的原則,認(rèn)為知識和觀念起源于感性世界,感覺經(jīng)驗(yàn)是一切知識的源泉。要獲得自然的科學(xué)知識,就必須把認(rèn)識建筑在感覺經(jīng)驗(yàn)的基礎(chǔ)上。他還提出了經(jīng)驗(yàn)歸納法,主張以實(shí)驗(yàn)和觀察材料為基礎(chǔ),經(jīng)過分析、比較、選擇、排斥,最后得出正確的結(jié)論。 補(bǔ)充 一.培根生平 培根于1561年1月22日出生于倫敦一個官宦世家。父親尼古拉.培根是伊麗莎白女王的掌璽大臣,曾在劍橋大學(xué)攻讀法律,他思想傾向進(jìn)步,信奉英國國敦,反對教皇干涉英國內(nèi)部事物。母親安尼是一位頗有名氣的才女,她嫻熟的掌握希臘文和拉丁文,是加爾文教派的信徒。良好的家庭教育使培根成熟較早,各方面都表現(xiàn)出異乎尋常的才智。12歲時,培根被送入劍橋大學(xué)三一學(xué)院深造。在校學(xué)習(xí)期間,他對傳統(tǒng)的觀念和信仰產(chǎn)生了懷疑,開始獨(dú)自思考社會和人生的真諦。 在劍橋大學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)三年后,培根作為英國駐法大使埃米阿斯.鮑萊爵士的隨員來到了法國,在旅居巴黎兩年半的時間里,他幾乎走遍了整個法國,接觸到不少的新鮮事物,汲取了許多新的思想,這對他的世界觀的形成起到了很大的作用。1579年,培根的父親突然病逝,他要為培根準(zhǔn)備日后贍養(yǎng)之資的計劃破滅,培根的生活開始陷入貧困。在回國奔父喪之后,培根住進(jìn)了葛萊法學(xué)院,一面攻讀法律,一面四處謀求職位。1582年,他終于取得了律師資格,1584年當(dāng)選為國會議員,1589年,成為法院出缺后的書記,然而這一職位竟長達(dá)20年之久沒有出現(xiàn)空缺。他四處奔波,卻始沒有得到任何職位。此時,培根在思想上更為成熟了,他決心要把脫離實(shí)際,脫離自然的一切知識加以改革,把經(jīng)驗(yàn)觀察、事實(shí)依據(jù)、實(shí)踐效果引入認(rèn)識論。這一偉大抱負(fù)是他的科學(xué)的“偉大復(fù)興”的主要目標(biāo),是他為之奮斗一生的志向。 1602年,伊麗莎白去世,詹姆士一世繼位。由于培根曾力主蘇格蘭與英格蘭的合并,受到詹姆士的大力贊賞。培根因此平步青云,扶搖直上。1602年受封為爵士,1604年被任命為詹姆士的顧問,1607年被任命為副檢察長,1613年被委任為首席檢察官,1616年被任命為樞密院顧問,1617年提升為掌璽大臣,1618年晉升為英格蘭的大陸官,授封為維魯蘭男爵,1621年又授封為奧爾本斯子爵。但培根的才能和志趣不在國務(wù)活動上,而存在與對科學(xué)真理的探求上。這一時期,他在學(xué)術(shù)研究上取得了巨大的成果。并出版了多部著作。 1621年,培根被國會指控貪污受賄,被高級法庭判處罰金四萬磅,監(jiān)禁于倫敦塔內(nèi),終生逐出宮廷,不得任議員和官職。雖然后來罰金和監(jiān)禁皆被豁免,但培根卻因此而身敗名裂。從此培根不理政事,開始專心從事理論著述。 1626年3月底,培根坐車經(jīng)守倫敦北郊。當(dāng)時他正在潛心研究冷熱理論及其實(shí)際應(yīng)用問題。當(dāng)路過一片雪地時,他突然想作一次實(shí)驗(yàn),他宰了一只雞,把雪填進(jìn)雞肚,以便觀察冷凍在防腐上的作用。但由于他身體孱弱,經(jīng)受不住風(fēng)寒的侵襲,支氣管炎復(fù)發(fā),病情惡化,于1626年4月9日清晨病逝。 培根死后,人們?yōu)閼涯钏?,為他修建了一座紀(jì)念碑,亨利·沃登爵士為他題寫了墓志銘: 圣奧爾本斯子爵 如用更煊赫的頭銜應(yīng) 稱之為“科學(xué)之光”、“法律之舌” …… 二.培根的哲學(xué)思想 培根的哲學(xué)思想是與其社會思想是密不可分的。他是資產(chǎn)階級上升時期的代表,主張發(fā)展生產(chǎn),渴望探索自然,要求發(fā)展科學(xué)。他認(rèn)為是經(jīng)院哲學(xué)阻礙了當(dāng)代科學(xué)的發(fā)展。因此他極力批判經(jīng)院哲學(xué)和神學(xué)權(quán)威。他還進(jìn)一步揭露了人類認(rèn)識產(chǎn)生謬誤的根源,提出了著名的“四假相說”。他說這是在人心普遍發(fā)生的一種病理狀態(tài),而非在某情況下產(chǎn)生的迷惑與疑難。第一種是“種族的假相”,這是由于人的天性而引起的認(rèn)識錯誤;第二種是“洞穴的假相”是個人由于性格、愛好、教育、環(huán)境而產(chǎn)生的認(rèn)識中片面性的錯誤;第三種是“市場的假相”,即由于人們交往時語言概念的不確定產(chǎn)生的思維混亂。第四種是“劇場的假相”這是指由于盲目迷信權(quán)威和傳統(tǒng)而造成的錯誤認(rèn)識。培根指出,經(jīng)院哲學(xué)家就是利用四種假相來抹煞真理,制造謬誤,從而給予了經(jīng)院哲學(xué)沉重的打擊。但是培根的“假相說”滲透了培根哲學(xué)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)主義傾象,未能對理智的本性與唯心主義的虛妄加以嚴(yán)格區(qū)別。 培根認(rèn)為當(dāng)時的學(xué)術(shù)傳統(tǒng)是貧乏的,原因在于學(xué)術(shù)與經(jīng)驗(yàn)失去接觸。他主張科學(xué)理論與科學(xué)技術(shù)相輔相成。他主張打破“偶像”,鏟除各種偏見和幻想,他提出“真理是時間的女兒而不是權(quán)威的女兒”,對經(jīng)院哲學(xué)進(jìn)行了有力的攻擊。 培根的科學(xué)方法觀以實(shí)驗(yàn)定性和歸納為主。他繼承和發(fā)展了古代關(guān)于物質(zhì)是萬物本源的思想,認(rèn)為世界是由物質(zhì)構(gòu)成的,物質(zhì)具有運(yùn)動的特性,運(yùn)動是物質(zhì)的屬性。培根從唯物論立場出發(fā),指出科學(xué)的任務(wù)在于認(rèn)識自然界及其規(guī)律。但受時代的局限,他的世界觀還具有樸素唯物論和形而上學(xué)的特點(diǎn)。 三.培根的論著 1597年,培根發(fā)表了他的處女作《論說隨筆文集》。他在書中將自己對社會的認(rèn)識和思考,以及對人生的理解,濃縮成許多富有哲理的名言警句,受到廣大讀者的歡迎。 1605年,培根用英語完成了兩卷集《論學(xué)術(shù)的進(jìn)展》。這是以知識為其研究對象的一部著作,是培根聲稱要以知識為其領(lǐng)域,全面改革知識的宏大理想和計劃的一部份。培根在書中猛烈抨擊了中世紀(jì)的蒙昧主義,論證了知識的巨大的作用,提示了知識不能令人滿意的現(xiàn)狀及補(bǔ)救的辦法。在這本書中,培根提出一個有系統(tǒng)的科學(xué)百科全書的提綱,對后來十八世紀(jì)的狄德羅為首的法國百科全書派編寫百科全書,起了重大作用。 1609年,在培根任副檢察長時,他又出版了第三本著作《論古人的智慧》。他認(rèn)為在遠(yuǎn)古時代,存在著人類最古的智慧,可以通過對古代寓言故事的研究而發(fā)現(xiàn)失去的最古的智慧。 培根原打算撰寫一部六卷本百科全書式的著作——《偉大的復(fù)興》,這是他要復(fù)興科學(xué),要對人類知識加以重新改造的巨著,但他未能完成預(yù)期的計劃,只發(fā)行了前兩部份,1620年出版的《新工具》是該書的第二部份。《新工具》是培根最重要的哲學(xué)著作,它提出了培根在近代所開創(chuàng)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)認(rèn)識原則和經(jīng)驗(yàn)認(rèn)識方法。這本書與亞里士多德的《工具篇》是相對立的。 培根在結(jié)束其政治生涯后,僅用幾個月時間就完成了《亨利七世本紀(jì)》一書,這部著作得到后世史學(xué)家的高度評價,被譽(yù)為是“近代史學(xué)的里程碑”。 大約在1623年,培根寫成了《新大西島》一書,這是一部尚未完成的烏托邦式的作品,由羅萊在他去逝的第二年首次發(fā)表。作者在書中描繪了自己新追求和向往的理想社會藍(lán)圖,設(shè)計了一個稱為“本色列”的國家,在這個國家里,科學(xué)主宰一切,這是培根畢業(yè)所倡導(dǎo)的科學(xué)的“偉大復(fù)興”的思想信念的集中表現(xiàn)。 此外,培根在逝世后還留下了許多遺著,后來,由許多專家學(xué)者先后整理出版,包括《論事物的本性》、《迷宮的線索》、《各家哲學(xué)的批判》、《自然界的大事》、《論人類的知識》等等。 四.培根在科學(xué)史上的地位 弗蘭西斯.培根是近代哲學(xué)史上首先提出經(jīng)驗(yàn)論原則的哲學(xué)家。他重視感覺經(jīng)驗(yàn)和歸納邏輯在認(rèn)識過程中的作用,開創(chuàng)了以經(jīng)驗(yàn)為手段,研究感性自然的經(jīng)驗(yàn)哲學(xué)的新時代,對近代科學(xué)的建立起了積極的推動作用,對人類哲學(xué)史、科學(xué)史都做出了重大的歷史貢獻(xiàn)。為此,羅素尊稱培根為“給科學(xué)研究程序進(jìn)行邏輯組織化的先驅(qū)”。Francis Bacon was the son of Nicolas Bacon, the Lord Keeper of the Seal of Elisabeth I. He entered Trinity College Cambridge at age 12. Bacon later described his tutors as "Men of sharp wits, shut up in their cells of a few authors, chiefly Aristotle, their Dictator." This is likely the beginning of Bacon‘s rejection of Aristotelianism and Scholasticism and the new Renaissance Humanism. His father died when he was 18, and being the youngest son this left him virtually penniless. He turned to the law and at 23 he was already in the House of Commons. His rich relatives did little to advance his career and Elisabeth apparently distrusted him. It was not until James I became King that Bacon‘s career advanced. He rose to become Baron Verulam, Viscount St. Albans and Lord Chancellor of England. His fall came about in the course of a struggle between King and Parliament. He was accused of having taken a bribe while a judge, tried and found guilty. He thus lost his personal honour, his fortune and his place at court. Loren Eiseley in his beautifully written book about Bacon The Man Who Saw Through Time remarks that Bacon: "...more fully than any man of his time, entertained the idea of the universe as a problem to be solved, examined, meditated upon, rather than as an eternally fixed stage, upon which man walked." This is the title page from Bacon‘s Instauratio Magna which contains his Novum Organum which is a new method to replace that of Aristotle. The image is of a ship passing through the pillars of Hercules, which symbolized for the ancients the limits of man‘s possible explorations. The image represents the analogy between the great voyages of discovery and the explorations leading to the advancement of learning. In The Advancement of Learning Bacon makes this analogy explicit. Speaking to James I, to whom the book is dedicated, he writes: "For why should a few received authors stand up like Hercules columns, beyond which there should be no sailing or discovering, since we have so bright and benign a star as your Majesty to conduct and prosper us." The image also forcefully suggests that using Bacon‘s new method, the boundaries of ancient learning will be passed. The Latin phrase at the bottom from the Book of Daniel means: "Many will pass through and knowledge will be increased." Bacon saw himself as the inventor of a method which would kindle a light in nature - "a light that would eventually disclose and bring into sight all that is most hidden and secret in the universe." This method involved the collection of data, their judicious interpretation, the carrying out of experiments, thus to learn the secrets of nature by organized observation of its regularities. Bacon‘s proposals had a powerful influence on the development of science in seventeenth century Europe. Thomas Hobbes served as Bacon‘s last amunensis or secretary. Many members of the British Royal Society saw Bacon as advocating the kind of enquiry conducted by that society. Bacon Time Line 1561 January 22, born in London to Sir Nicolas Bacon, the lord keeper of seal, and the sister-in-law of Lord Burghley. 1573 April, enters Trinity college, Cambridge where he studies all the sciences then taught. 1576 Enters Gray‘s Inn with his brother Anthony. Travels with the Ambassador to Paris, Sir Amyas Paulet. 1579 Resides at Gray‘s Inn. Father‘s death leaves him penniless so he begins a career in law. 1582 Made outer barister at Gray‘s Inn. 1584 Takes a seat in parliament for Dorsetshire. 1591 Confidential advisor to the earl of Essex. 1593 Takes a seat in parliament for Middlesex. 1597 Publishes his Essays along with Colours of Good and Evil and the Meditationes Sacrae. 1601 February 8, Essex leads a plot to kidnap the queen in order to force her to dismiss his enemies from her court. The leaders were arrested and Bacon was instrument al in securing for the queen a guilty verdict at Essex‘ trial. 1603 Queen Elizabeth dies, succeeded by James I in whose service Bacon flourishes. 1607 Receives office of solicitor. 1608 Named treasurer of Gray‘s Inn. 1613 Bacon becomes attorney general. 1617 March 7, made lord keeper of the seal, the same office his father had held. 1618 January 7, made lord chancellor, and received the title of Baron Verulam. 1620 Publishes Novum Organum. 1621 Created Viscount St. Albans. Charged with bribery and found guilty upon his own admission. Fined forty thousand pounds, sentenced to the Tower of London, prohibi ted from holding office for the state, and prohibited from sitting on parliament. The sentence was reduced and no fine was paid and only four days were spent in the Tower but he never again held office or sat for parliament. 1622 Presents to Prince Charles the History of Henry VII. Publishes Historia Ventorum and Historia Vitae et Mortis. 1623 Publishes De Augmentis Scientiarum. 1624 Publishes Apothegms. 1626 March, while driving near Highgate, decides to experiment with the effect of cold on the decay of meat, purchases a fowl and stuffs it with snow. Catches cold and develops bronchitis, dying on April 9.
刺xin的刺刺兒
Introduction of Lord Francis Bacon Lord Francis Bacon,(1561-1626) the father of experimental philosophy, whose father had been Lord Keeper, and himself was a great many years Lord Chancellor under King James I. Nevertheless, amidst the intrigues of a Court, and the affairs of his exalted employment (Because of bribery and extortion he was sentenced by the House of Lords to pay a fine of about four hundred thousand French livres, to lose his peerage and his dignity of Chancellor.), which alone were enough to engross his whole time, he yet found so much leisure for study as to make himself a great philosopher, a good historian, and an elegant writer; and a still more surprising circumstance is that he lived in an age in which the art of writing justly and elegantly was little known, much less true philosophy. Lord Bacon, as is the fate of man, was more esteemed after his death than inlifetime. His enemies were in the British Court, and his admirers were foreigners. [中文〕 培根被認(rèn)為是現(xiàn)代科學(xué)時代的始祖。他是第一個意識到科學(xué)技木能夠改造世界面貌的哲學(xué)家,熱情支持實(shí)驗(yàn)科學(xué)研究。 l561年,培棍生于倫敦。他是英國伊麗莎白女王時代一 高級職員的長子。12歲入劍橋大學(xué)三一學(xué)院,但不久離開 那里,沒有獲得大學(xué)畢業(yè)證書。16歲開始工作,隨英國駐注大使去巴黎在使館工作過一段時間。18歲時父親去世,沒留下什么錢,培根被迫去上學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)法律。21歲開始從事律師業(yè)。23歲時被選為英國下議院議員。伊麗莎白女王向議會 提出增加稅收計劃,培根表示反對通過這個提案,女王因而討厭培根,培根成了伊西克斯的朋友和參謀。伊西克斯是個貪婪的貴族分子,同情培根,他決定發(fā)動反對伊麗莎白女王的政變。培根勸告他應(yīng)該忠于女王,但伊西克斯不聽,政變以失敗而告終。因?yàn)榕喔谝廖骺怂故軐徏氨慌兴佬桃话钢衅鹆四撤N作用,致使各階層人民對培根有些不滿情緒。 1603年,伊麗莎白女王去世,培根當(dāng)上繼任國王詹姆斯一世的顧問,雖然詹姆斯—世沒有受培根勸言的約束,但卻很喜歡他。因此在詹姆斯一世執(zhí)政期間,培根平步青云,節(jié)節(jié)高升,1617年擔(dān)任掌璽大臣,1618年就任大法官,1620 年受封為子爵。 不期災(zāi)難降臨了。培根被指控受賄,其實(shí)受賄在當(dāng)時已是司空見慣,絕非新鮮,但培根在議會里的勁敵抓住這個機(jī)會,將他趕出了官場。培根對受賄供認(rèn)不諱,被判在倫敦塔坐牢,交付大批罰金,終生禁止做官。但國王釋放了他,免除了他的罰金,培根只不過喪失了政治生命。培根這樣評論議會決定:“我是英國50年來最公正的法官,而議會對我的判決是200年來議會所作出的最公正的判決?!?培根的若干著作為他贏得了聲譽(yù)。他的第一部著作《論說文集》發(fā)表于1597年。這部著作用辛辣評論風(fēng)格寫成,但卻閃閃發(fā)光,引入入勝,在世界流傳極廣。即本精品文摘。 培根的最偉大的哲學(xué)著作之一名叫《偉大的復(fù)興》。該著作包括6個部分,已完成的部分有:序言、《新工具》(對一種 新的邏輯方法的描述)、《自然史和實(shí)驗(yàn)史概論》組體現(xiàn)了作者某些觀點(diǎn)及不同風(fēng)格的科學(xué)和哲學(xué)沉思錄. 培根從1605年起開始寫作,但沒有完成的《科學(xué)推進(jìn)論》 被認(rèn)為是自亞里士多德時代以來最偉大的著作。
我還是杰
培根的英文是Bacon,作名詞時意思為“咸肉;腌肉;熏豬肉”。其原意是煙熏肋條肉(即方肉)或煙熏咸背脊肉。培根是西式肉制品三大主要品種(火腿、香腸)之一,其風(fēng)味除帶有適口的咸味之外,還具有濃郁的煙熏香味。
培根外皮油潤呈金黃色,皮質(zhì)堅硬,用手指彈擊有輕度的“卟卟”聲;瘦肉呈深棕色,質(zhì)地干硬,切開后肉色鮮艷。培根又名煙肉(Bacon),是將豬肉經(jīng)腌熏等加工的豬胸肉,或其他部位的肉熏制而成。煙肉一般被認(rèn)為是早餐的頭盤,將之切成薄片,放在鍋?zhàn)永锟净蛴糜图濉?/p>
煙肉味道極好,常用作為烹調(diào),煙肉被視為肥胖的主要來源,但因?yàn)槊绹瞥隽说吞妓衔餃p肥法,煙肉致肥的觀點(diǎn)漸漸改變。實(shí)話實(shí)說,培根確實(shí)好吃!
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